Emotional Intelligence and Gender in Leadership

Introduction Organisations require leadership as a source of competitive advantage as well as a mechanism for steering the company (Roberts 2004). Many authors have done a lot of research on the subject, and have found that gender and emotional intelligence determine the leadership style in an organisation. Consequently, they can have an adverse effect on a firm’s ability to meet its objectives.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Emotional Intelligence and Gender in Leadership specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The first part of the paper will involve a definition of leadership and summary of is basic models. This will precede emotional intelligence and its models. Afterwards, the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership will be the main focus. It is crucial to look at criticisms of the relationship, as well. Thereafter, the paper will focus on gender and leadership with specific emphasis on prejudices and stereotyping, the glass ceiling and the role incongruity theory. Subsequently, the paper will contain details about the relationship between gender and leadership. This will precede a criticism of the model and an examination of the Asian context in terms of gender. Lastly, the study will link leadership, emotional intelligence and gender. Definition of leadership Scholars do not have one universal definition of leadership, so it is advisable to look at the most predominant definitions in the discipline. Burns (1978, p.19) defines leadership as â€Å"the process of inducing followers to act for certain goals that represent the motivations and values of both leaders and followers†. Burns came up with the transactional-transformational taxonomy of leadership. He describes it as a mobilisation process in which people driven by values seek to meet particular values. Conversely, Bennis and Nanus (1985) believe that leadership entails creating focus through vision, c reating commitment and enthusiasm through communication, trust by positioning people and deployment of oneself through optimism and a positive self perception. Roberts (2004, p 62) believes that â€Å"leadership encapsulates a number of elements needed to create strategic change.† He defined these elements as vision, courage, communication, strategic recognition, and courage.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Kotter (1996, p.26) states that leadership is â€Å"establishment of direction, aligning people to a vision, motivating them and producing results.† George (2007) asserts that leadership is getting people to share a common purpose, and empowering those individuals to create value for concerned parties. Types of leadership Transformational leadership Burns (1978) was the first author to talk about this concept. He believed that transformational leaders look beyond short term goals and focus on a higher purpose. Bass (1985) added that a shared mission brings leaders and followers together in transformational leadership. These leaders aim at making their followers self reliant. Lewis (1996) maintains that a transformational leader brings change by enlarging the vision and understanding of one’s followers. He or she ensures that he clarifies purposes and attunes behaviour to specific values, beliefs and principles. The goal of the transformational leader is to make permanent and self perpetuating changes within his or her organisation. Categories of transformational leadership Avolio and Bass (1995) came up with four categories of transformational leadership that they called the four I’s of transformational leadership. The first is known as idealised influence. Leaders that possess this quality garner admiration, trust and appreciation from their followers (Halan 2004). Consequently, followers aspire to be like them. Idealis ed influence causes leaders to move beyond their personal interests and commit to a shared agreement with their followers. They read the potential of others and cause them to tap into it. The second I is inspirational motivation where leaders motivate followers in order to get them to demonstrate certain behaviour. Usually, this behaviour works for the good of the organisation; examples include team spirit, optimism and enthusiasm. These leaders aim at stimulating people’s values and needs. Leaders who use this set of skills can cause individuals to bring about extraordinary results owing to their extra effort (Kotter 2001). The third I is intellectual stimulation, which involves leading people by stimulating their thinking. These leaders strive to expand and re-evaluate conventional thinking. It is a type of skill that encourages followers to think outside the box and take risks.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Emotional Intelligence and Gender in Lea dership specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Furthermore, leaders who practice these skills often teach their followers to take ownership of problems. Intellectual inspiration cannot coexist with conventional norms. As such, leaders embrace external threats rather than protect their followers from them (Lewis 1996). The fourth I in transformational leadership represents individualised consideration. A person with this quality can analyse and observe one’s followers in order to determine their desires and needs. The quality is synonymous with empathy and compassion. It also causes leaders to be honest with their followers. Such transformational leaders will accept personal differences and assign jobs on the basis of these personal inclinations (Tichy and Devanna 1986). Transactional leadership Transactional leadership concerns itself with proper resource exchanges. Burns (1978) coined the term when discussing his understanding of le adership. A transactional leader focuses on making exchanges with his or her followers. The person will offer employees something they want in exchange for something he or she wants. These desires may be intangible or intangible. Transactional leadership occurs more commonly than transformational leadership in most organisations. Dimensions of transactional leadership Three dimensions exist in transactional leadership, and they include passive management by exception, active management by exception and contingent reward. Contingent reward is an assessment of the degree to which a leader establishes and clarifies expectations and rewards. It involves setting up useful transactions between leaders and followers. The second dimension is active management by exception. This aspect analyses the extent to which a leader will take corrective actions when transactions occur. The active subset normally takes place at an earlier time.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The manager does not wait for behaviour to occur before he or she responds to it. Instead, he or she assesses followers’ behaviour in order to predict future behaviour. Active management by exception causes leaders to correct actions before they occur. Conversely, passive management by exception is reactive in nature. These leaders do not anticipate problems; they instead wait for them to occur then take actions to correct them (Howell and Avolio 1993). Laissez faire Laissez fair is a leadership characterised by absence and avoidance. In fact, one may think of it as the absence of leadership. People who adopt such a style will avoid decisions at all costs. They will hesitate to take corrective actions when issues or problems arise. Furthermore, many of them are rarely there when needed. In other words, their offices are characterised by high levels of absenteeism. It should be noted that although passive management by exception (in transactional leadership) seems somewhat sim ilar to laissez faire, it is still quite distinct from transactional leadership. Passive managers may take long to make decisions but still make them. Therefore, it is their timing that makes them passive. Laissez fair leaders do not make decisions at all (Bass 1998). They do not attempt to alter behaviour and let followers do as they please (Avolio 1999). Leadership and Emotional Intelligence Definition of Emotional Intelligence Mayer et al. (2000, p. 396) define emotional intelligence as â€Å"the ability to perceive and express emotion, assimilate it into one’s thoughts, understand, reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in others and in the self†. It is believed that a great understanding of emotions leads to superior problem solving. When Salovey and Mayer (1990) first coined the term, they asserted that one’s success in life largely depends on one’s emotional intelligence. Goleman (1998) added that emotional intelligence differs from academic abi lities but also supports it. Not only is this trait important for a person in a managerial or leadership position, but it also applies to persons with technical skills. In fact, it is a better predictor of excellence and productivity at work. As people move up the corporate ladder, they tend to require more emotional intelligence. Superiors no longer judge people on the basis of technical or analytical work, they eventually get interested in the way people handle themselves and each other. Emotional intelligence is manifested in four main realms: self awareness, social awareness, social skills and self management. A person with high emotional intelligence will be self aware; he or she will understand the strengths and weaknesses of his emotions. He or she will be socially aware in that he will know how to read other people’s emotions. Furthermore, emotional intelligence involves social skills; the latter moves beyond merely reading people’s emotions to handling them ef fectively. Lastly, emotional intelligence encompasses self management, which is the regulation and management of one’s emotions (Goleman 1998). Types of models Ability model Emotional intelligence is divided into two categories: the ability model and the mixed model. The ability model focuses on emotional intelligence as an ability to deal with emotions (Mayer and Salovey 1997). It encompasses the perceptions, assimilation, expression, and understanding of emotions with the self and with others. Therefore, this model claims that a person with high emotional intelligence will understand and reason well with emotional information. Mayer et al. (2000) explain that reasoning and emotions are not two mutually exclusive phenomena; they can and do complement one another. Shown below is a diagrammatic illustration of the dimensions in the ability model. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence Source: Mayer, D Salovey, P 1997, â€Å"What is emotional intelligence?†, i n P. Salovey, D. Sluyter (eds.), In order to understand the ability model, one ought to look at emotions through four lenses. The first aspect is the perception of emotion. The latter quality is learned in early stages of development. Toddlers often mimic their parent’s facial expression in an attempt to express their emotions. However, in later life, they come to differentiate between insincere and sincere emotions. The second skill set is assimilation of emotions into one’s thinking. Emotional intelligence allows one to weigh particular emotions against others and decide which aspects warrant attention. The third dimension in the ability model is reasoning through emotions. Rules govern emotions; therefore, one may get angry when one is unjustly treated, or one may feel ashamed after being unjustly treated after reacting improperly. The last level of emotional intelligence in this model is the management of emotions. People should regulate emotions or this could le ad to the development of certain complications in the future. For instance, when one gets angry, one should know how to calm down. Alternatively, if a colleague is nervous, an emotionally intelligent person ought to know how to relieve that person’s anxiety. The mental ability model predicts implications of intelligence in one’s life. It also postulates that one can empirically test emotional intelligence as another form of intelligence. Mayer et al. (2000) explain that the ability to provide wrong or right answers to mental problems makes the latter suggestion possible. They also add that measured skills of emotional intelligence correlate to other mental ability measures. Since one’s emotional intelligence rises with age, then this proves that the phenomenon is empirical. In the ability model, one can determine whether a person is emotionally intelligent by their ability to select right emotion role models or their ability to discuss feelings. One may also ass ess EI through one’s emotional reframing. This means that a person should be realistically apprehensive or optimistic. Furthermore, emotionally intelligent persons are more like to have lived in emotionally sensitive households or environments. Such people ought to be non defensive and should have expert knowledge in a certain dimension of emotions. Some of the dimensions may include leadership, spirituality and ethical feelings. Mental ability model The second model is known as the mixed model, which focuses on traits that enable one to effectively manage one’s life. These were non cognitive capabilities that include persistence, self motivation, enthusiasm and self control. The model is called mixed because it mixes personality traits or skills with emotional abilities. In this model, a number of theorists have proposed their own understanding of emotional intelligence. Some of them focused on the personality traits that come hand in hand with emotional intelligence (Salovey and Mayer 1990). The theorists added that this feature differentiated genuine people from boorish ones. Additionally, one may think of emotional intelligence in terms of one’s attitude to life and persistence in difficult tasks. Another theorist that came up with a mixed model was Bar-On (1997). He identified five major criteria that determine one’s ability to succeed in life. They were management of stress, flexibility, relational skills with oneself and others and mood. Goleman (1998) also had his own mixed model of emotional intelligence which encompassed knowing, managing, and recognising emotions. It also included motivating oneself and handling relationships. Shown below is a diagrammatic representation of his model. Goleman’s mixed model Source: Goleman, D 1998, Shown below is a summary of the subsystems that make up the emotional intelligence model Subsystems of the emotional intelligence model Source: Mayer, D, Salovey, P, Caruso, D. 2000, â€Å"Models of emotional intelligence†, in R. Sternberg (ed.), Examples Many researchers in the field of emotional intelligence have done their studies in western nations; therefore, it essential to look at studies from other parts of the world such as Asia. Chandra et al. (2010) carried out a research in Orissa, India. They wanted to assess the level of emotional intelligence within the banking sector in Orissa. To achieve this objective, they gave participants (bank employees) tentative scenarios from which they were to select a suitable option. The authors amalgamated all their scores and found that the final scores were satisfactory for the group. Consequently, they concluded that emotional intelligence was a crucial element in the lives of the Indian employees. The study corroborates evidence by other western scholars who state that employees with high emotional intelligence tend to succeed at work. The same thing applies to these employees as their outcomes in the ban ks were acceptable. Nguyen (2009) also carried out another research in an Asian country – Vietnam – on emotional intelligence. The author wanted to determine whether emotional intelligence assists instructors perform well at a university. He measured emotional intelligence using the EQ Map. The four levels in the research were: proficient, optimal, cautious and vulnerable. He found that the participants had high scores of emotional intelligence. Nonetheless, the author explained the source of this performance. He believed that the Confucian culture had a large role to play. Furthermore, the Vietnamese have high power distance and a collectivist culture. This implies that they must remain sensitive to other people’s feelings. Their long term orientation also explains why few of them focus on negative emotions, which have short term implications. Therefore, while the above research confirmed what other western theorists had said about emotional intelligence and wo rk performance, it also shaded some insight about the Asian context. High emotional intelligence scores in Asia stem from the cultural background of the Asian people, which cultivates a sense of cohesiveness amongst them. Individuals manage their emotions for the sake of others. They also avoid confrontations and ignore minor upsets because of their long term orientation and Confucian teachings. Relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership Emotional intelligence and transformational leadership Transformational leadership involves motivating others to achieve a common purpose. Emotional intelligence assists leaders to understand people’s emotions and thus motivate them more effectively. Additionally, since a transformational leader requires a vision to steer his followers, then he must harness his own emotions in order to achieve this (Caruso et al., 2003). In the four ‘I’s of transformational leadership, intellectual stimulation is one of the skills sets manifested by these leaders. They encourage their followers to think outside the box and to solve complex problems. However, to achieve this, one must manage one’s emotions during difficult situations. An effective transformational leader channels others’ actions even through complex circumstances. Emotional intelligence can allow an individual to lead in this scenario. Additionally transformational leaders need to mentor and motivate others in inspirational motivation. They need to understand other people’s emotions in order to stir them. EI also enables individualised consideration through studying emotional roadblocks and resolving them, or by knowing employees’ needs, which are depicted by their emotions. Emotional Intelligence and relationship oriented leadership Relationship oriented leadership encapsulated strong consideration behaviour. However, for one to demonstrate this, one must be aware of others and the self through one’s emotio ns. Consequently, high emotional intelligence leads to stronger relationship-oriented leadership (Bar-On 1997). Leaders can build effective relationships once their innate and learned behaviour match the perceptions of others in their workplace. Getting to such a state requires high emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence and transactional leadership As explained earlier, transactional leadership has three major dimensions: continent reward, active management by exception and passive management by exception. Most studies on this relationship, including one by Harms and Crede (2010), have found a positive correlation between certain types of transactional leadership and emotional intelligence and little or no relationship between emotional intelligence and other types of transactional leadership. The latter authors found that no relationship existed between emotional intelligence and active management by exception. However, they did find a negative relationship between passive management by exception and emotional intelligence. Their results also showed that a positive relationship exists between emotional intelligence and contingent reward transactional leadership. Since contingent reward theories require equitable exchanges, then leaders who adopt this style need to know how to read other people’s emotions; that is, they need high EI. In contrast, active management-by-exception is a habitual practice that entails negligible depth hence showing no link to EI. Passive management by exception had a negative correlation with EI because EI is synonymous with initiative or self-drive, yet these qualities are non existent in passive management by exception (Harms and Crede 2010). The following is a summary of findings concerning EI and leadership style from the latter study. Contingent reward Active management by exception Passive management by exception Laissez faire EI (Pearson’s correlation r) 0.38 0.15 0.02 -0,15 EI and leadership s tyle correlations Source: Harms, P Crede, M 2010, ‘Emotional intelligence and transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analysis’, Management of one’s mood is also part of emotional intelligence. If one easily controls one’s mood or makes decisions when in a neutral mood, then the person will be more effective. A transactional leader can make decisions on how to effectively reward employees if one is in control of one’s emotions or when one has high emotional intelligence (Caruso et al. 2003). Sebastien (2011) explains that Asians in general tend to refrain from expressing their emotions because of their Taoist, Buddhist or Confucian principles. Most of these schools of thought emphasise the importance of harmony and self control. Such teachings assist leaders to manage their emotions. This leads to strong levels of emotional intelligence which can make transactional leadership effective. Critique and criticisms Emotional Intelligence models One of the major criticisms of the mixed models is their broad definitions of emotional intelligence. They focus on personality factors that have little to do with emotional intelligence and more to do with success in life. Using traits as definitions of emotional intelligence are particularly troublesome because they are self reported. Measurement of EI can be inaccurate and unreliable in this EI model (Antonakis et al. 2009). Mental ability models may be more reliable, but have also solicited their fair share of criticisms. First, emotional intelligence, as measured in the mental ability model, has minimal predictive value on work outcomes. Consequently, organisations that use EI largely to hire, promote and retain employees are misguided. Correlation studies between work performance and EI are as small as 0.19 (Antonakis et al. 2009). Emotional Intelligence and leadership links Several studies carried out on the relationship between leadership and emotional intelligence t end to lack validity. A number of them do not control for external factors such as IQ. Others tend to measure people skills rather than leadership skills. Furthermore, some tests only focus on asking respondents questions after which their responses will denote their level of emotional intelligence. Those who select responses close to the administrator’s answers will be given a higher EI than those who do not. The major challenge with this methodological approach is that it relies on the IQ of the research administrator. Antonakis et al. (2009) also explain that the very nature of emotions may sometimes impede leadership performance. Being overly sensitive to others’ emotions may cause a leader to avoid confrontation and focus on remaining agreeable. Furthermore, one can be an effective leader even though one has low EI because one can use one’s learned intelligence. Leaders can learn about patterns of emotions without necessarily being sensitive to them and act in response to them. Gender and leadership Gender issues in leadership Debates exist over women’s leadership capabilities. Some scholars argue that women are less effective as leaders while others believe that they are superior to their male counterparts. Some writers claim that gender has no correlation to leadership success, so it should not be the point of focus in any of these discussions. Nonetheless, evidence exists to illustrate that women have a different approach to leadership; even though it may not be more or less effective than men’s approach (Northouse 2007). The nature of their success also depends on a number of variables. In certain circumstances, prejudices may occur to minimise their opportunities. They also have to contend with a glass ceiling that hampers access to top leadership positions at work. Prejudices and stereotyping Prejudices or stereotypes refer to the placement of people into separate groups, based on race, age, gender etc in order to associate the group with certain characteristics. Stereotypes lead to discrimination as people who hold those biases will reject information that contradicts their stereotype and remember information that supports their way of thinking (Kanter 1993). Eagly Carli (2007) explains that most stereotypes against women occur when the victim is an out-group member. For instance, when only one woman exists in a male-dominated office, such as an engineering firm, then stereotypes are bound to occur. Tokenism can also arise at the workplace when a woman’s actions are judged through her gender. Therefore, work authorities may punish her for acting assertively, but reward her male colleagues for doing the same. At work and in leadership, these prejudices are manifested in the firm through diminished opportunities for advancement. Females who possess the same qualifications as men may not get promoted or access leadership positions (Kanter 1993). Alternatively, workplaces instate double standards of competence for men and women. Women must demonstrate exceptional qualities in order to be taken seriously. Additionally, some workplaces may assign leadership positions to women for projects that are already failing. This puts women at a greater risk for failure. Glass ceiling Hymowitz Schellhardt (1986) first came up with the term ‘glass ceiling’ in a wall street journal. They defined it as a barrier that women face when aspiring leadership positions in corporations, the military, educational institutions and other non profit organisations. One can see evidence of the glass ceiling when women are generally absent from top leadership positions, when compensation is biased against women, or when no opportunities exist to advance women’s place in corporations. Male representative Female representatives Mid level leader 72% 28% Business unit leader 80% 20% Senior executive 83% 17% Female representation in corporate leadership Source: PDI, 2012, ‘Can women executives break the glass ceiling?’ The glass ceiling may emanate from challenges in work – life balance. Organisations may stereotype women as caregivers and thus bypass them when opportunities arise, or they may provide minimal support for women in these roles. Some companies may not offer opportunities for skill development among women. Corporate cultures that disfavour women may also bring about this stereotype. Many women lack access to information networks as most of them select activities that exclude women, such as golf. Promotional policies and tokenism also keep women away from those positions (Oakley 2000). Role Incongruity Theory Eagly Karau (2002) define the role incongruity theory as perceived incongruity of leadership and gender roles, which leads to two kinds of prejudices. The first is perceiving women unfavourably as possible occupants of leadership positions. The second prejudice is treatment of leadership behaviour as masc uline. The consequence of this incongruity is creation of a hostile or unreceptive attitude towards female leaders. It also makes it quite difficult for women to be successful in leadership. Eagly (2003) explains that women are rising in a number of leadership positions because of three major factors that stem from the role incongruity theory of prejudice. First, society is redefining leadership roles to inchoate feminine, androgynous and masculine traits. Women are also adopting masculine attributes such as agentic qualities. Furthermore, several of them prefer androgynous leadership approaches so as to bring the gap between female gender roles and leadership roles. Link between gender and leadership The relationship between gender and leadership is quite complex as leadership styles depend on the circumstances involved. Nonetheless, Eagly and Johnson (1990) found that women tend to adopt more democratic leadership styles than their counterparts. If an organisation requires leaders to fulfil a leadership role in a hierarchical structure, then authorities might object to the legitimacy of women in that position. Men tend to adopt an autocratic form of leadership. One should note that in assessment of subordinates’ perceptions of leaders, biases may stem from expectations about gender. Members of organisations may judge women more harshly if they are autocratic regardless of seeing the same behaviour in men. Analyses that compare leadership styles between men and women have found that women tend to exhibit transformational leadership styles. Some stereotypes were confirmed, such as individualised consideration (Eagly Carli 2007). In all the four subscales of transformational leadership, men only scored higher than women in one dimension. Women are better suited to transformational leadership roles than men. Conversely, men have higher scores for laissez fair and passive management by exception subscales. Women are also transactional leaders, but they te nd to use contingent reward rather than passive approaches. Research shows that women are better at relationship-oriented styles than their male counterparts. Men tend to be task oriented. Critiques and criticism More credit for men than women Most of the research findings on gender and leadership give more credit to men and women, yet evidence points to the possibility of the female advantage. Some organisations are placing women in positions of authority as a sign of progress (Eagly 2003). Additionally, the above researches assume that female characteristics are the same, yet more women are adopting masculine characteristics, such as agentic traits in leadership (Schein 2001). Organisations are also changing in response to gender needs. Numerous countries now abide by antidiscrimination laws that respect the right of a female worker to maintain work-life balance. Antidiscrimination laws and lawsuits against gender discrimination are also likely to neutralise prejudices discussed i n the models above. Therefore, an overemphasis on male dominance and the male advantage may not be practical in this regard. Western context Most of the research carried out on gender mostly focuses on western culture, yet prejudices and stereotypes may be much more in Asia. Furthermore, the factors that lead to women’s rise in Asia is substantially different from the ones in other parts of the world. Generally, Asian leaders are still predominantly male; this mirrors occurrences in western nations. However, the reason behind the glass ceiling in Asia is different. Tuminez (2012) found that most female leaders in Asia got to their positions through privilege or social status. This is especially in the political realm where Asia has been at the forefront of selecting female presidents or prime ministers. Shown below is a summary of females in presidential positions in Asia. Number of years with female head of state Country Years in power for males Years in power for females Female-male ratio Sri Lanka 23 27 0.85 Philippines 34 16 0.46 Bangladesh 32 18 0.54 China 4 46 0.08 Japan 50 0 0 India 32 18 0.54 Pakistan 45 5 0.1 Graphical relationship of female-male ratio of female heads of state Source: Tuminez, A 2012, Canagarajah (2009) explains that this is a leadership paradox in Sri Lanka. The nation elected two powerful female leaders. One of them was Prime Minister Bandaranaike and President Kumaratunga. These ladies were all elected during times of crises. Both their husbands had been assassinated, so they were elected as a matter of emergency. Additionally, they sold themselves as matriarchal figures to the public so as to garner votes. If they did not come from elite social backgrounds, it is unlikely that they would have become leaders. In this regard, Asian female leaders have few leadership opportunities because they are elected on the basis of social status rather than merit. They must also bow to patriarchal expectations of mo therhood from females. Therefore, the glass ceiling stems from different factors from the ones outlined in the western context. Gender representation in Asia is quite divergent among all the countries. Some countries such as China, The Philippines and Sri Lanka have a narrow gender gap while others like India, Nepal, Cambodia and Pakistan have high gender gaps. Additionally, depictions of gender equality in these countries differ substantially depending on the nature of the institution that dominates that country. For instance, India and Bangladesh have low gender representations in corporate leadership. However, they have some of the highest representations of women in politics as seen through their ministers and parliamentarians. The dynastic-connections argument can explain this fact. Women in Asian politics are selected on the basis of their lineage rather than progressive gender ideologies. Shown below is a summary of female leaders in company boards. Percentages of women in co rporate boards in Asia Country China Thailand Singapore India Indonesia Japan S.Korea Percent 8.9% 8.7% 6.9% 5.3% 4.5% 0.9% 1.9% Source: Fang, A Teen, M 2010 ‘Bigger representation in business’, The glass ceiling in several Asian countries, such as Hong Kong, Singapore, and Japan, is largely perpetuated by the lack of organisational support structures for work life balance. Canagarajah (2009) affirms that 70.24 % of all female leaders in Japan will drop out of their positions when transitioning from middle to top level management. The corresponding number is 52.88% in China, 48.83% in Hong Kong and 45.9% in Singapore. These women lack mentoring opportunities, favourable maternity leave, childcare support and many more (Hewlett Rashid 2011). Perhaps one of the most unique and persistent factors that impedes Asian female leaders at the workplace is cultural prejudice. Several Asian societies still treasure male children over females. This means that organisati ons have a small sample space from which to draw female leaders. Additionally, a number of households still have not embraced women’s role outside their homes. Society perceives women as having fewer abilities than men, and this creates a glass ceiling for them. Shown below is a table of some of the cultural factors that impede success in Asian countries Social institutions that impede female gender leadership (global rankings) Country Ownership rights Son prefe- rence Physical integrity Civil liberties Family code Overall cultural score Sri Lanka 66th 1st 15th 98th 46th 5.9% Pakistan 79th 118th 47th 103rd 95th 24.4% India 79th 118th 15th 103rd 100th 31.8% Philippines 53rd 1st 3rd 1st 8th 0.7% Singapore 1st 1st 34th 1st 25th 1.5% China 1st 122nd 48th 1st 1st 21.7% Indonesia 1st 1st 79th 103rd 59th 12.8% Thailand 1st 1st 15th 1st 41st 1.068% 1st=least discriminative 122nd=most discriminative Source: OECD, 2012, Linkage between Emotional Intelligence, gen der and leadership Studies have shown that emotionally competent leaders perform well. It is not a fact that women have better emotional intelligence than men. Studies only point to the fact that women perform better than men in some areas emotional intelligence. For example, men have higher scores in impulse control, stress tolerance or capability while women do well in interpersonal relationships and social responsibility. (Bar-On 2000) These differences illustrate that women have their own competencies that make them just as competent as males. Studies that highlight female leaders’ strengths in certain areas of emotional intelligence serve to recognise their capabilities. Conclusion An analysis of research on emotional intelligence and leadership reveals that the transformational leadership style has the highest correlation to emotional intelligence. Some aspects of transactional leadership such as continent reward have a positive relationship with emotional intelligence. Active management by exception has neither a negative or positive correlation with emotional intelligence. However passive management by exception has a negative relationship with emotional intelligence. In the research, it was found that women experience gender stereotypes and prejudices at work. They must contend with a glass ceiling that prevents them from accessing leadership positions. Leadership styles that favour women include transformational, democratic, and relationship-oriented leaders. However, these research findings reflect western ideas. In the Asian context, females experience the glass ceiling based on different factors. Lastly, a correlation between emotional intelligence, gender and leadership illustrates that women and men have their own areas of competence. This is a case against discrimination of women in organisations since they are leaders in their own right. References Antonakis, J, Ashkanasy, N, Dasborough, M. 2009, ‘Does leadership need emotional i ntelligence?’ Leadership Quarterly, vol. 20, pp. 247-261. Avolio, J 1999, Full leadership development, Sage, Thousand Oaks. 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How to Get a Scholarship for Your PSAT Score

How to Get a Scholarship for Your PSAT Score Maybe youve heard about the PSAT/NMSQT test and maybe you havent. For many high school sophomores and juniors out there, when you sit for the exam in October, you dont prepare in any way. You show up and take the test. But with PSAT scholarships on the line, thats a big mistake. Huge! Your PSAT score can earn you big bucks for college, and with rising tuition costs across the board, every single dollar you can add to your college savings account is going to help. Heres how to get a scholarship for your PSAT score that can put cash in your savings account for the university of your choice.   Get Your Name on the Student Search Service List After your guidance counselor registers you for the PSAT/NMSQT  and you take the exam on your assigned PSAT test date, youll have the option to select Yes under the Student Search Service heading when youre filling out information the PSAT test. This will allow more than  1,200 colleges, universities, scholarship programs, and educational organizations to get your information and contact you should you qualify for one of their scholarships. Some organizations who partner with the College Board, the makers of the PSAT test, are listed below. I know that signing up seems like a double-edged sword. Great! My inbox will be filled emails from colleges. However. Scholarships are  out  there and go unclaimed every  year. There is money waiting for you. Why not deal with a little bit of email for the opportunity of some cash? Plus, you can opt out the the Student Search Service any time you want. The National Merit Scholarship Program One of the scholarships available to you via the Student Search Service is the National Merit Scholarship. The National Merit Scholarship Corporation uses the PSAT as an initial screening for this award. Hence, the PSAT is the National Merit Scholarship Qualifying Test (NMSQT). Its a tough one to earn as youll need to score in the upper 95th – 99th percentile on the PSAT to even be considered, but its definitely available for those top scorers. This is why youll prepare, right? Right. Heres more information about the National Merit Scholarship.   Institutions Granting Scholarships Specifically for Minority Students There are a ton of opportunities available when you sign up via the SSS on the PSAT, especially if youre a minority student. Please remember that minority students can mean a diverse range of ideas. Some of these organizations offer scholarships to minorities outside of race or ethnicity. For instance, young women, lgbtq students, and those with differing abilities can apply, as well. Before you dismiss one of these scholarships, do your research. You may actually be able to apply to many of these institutions granting scholarships based in part on your PSAT score.   American Indian Graduate Center:  This group offers scholarships for a whole range of things: financial need, high achievement in academics (ding, ding, ding! PSAT!), involvement in the community, involvement in a tribe, diversity, athleticism, creativity, a specific field (education, engineering, etc.), and a ton more.Asian and Pacific Islander American Scholarship Fund: This institution has partnered with a ton of different organizations and businesses like The Gates Foundation, ATT, Coca-Cola, FedEx, and many more to give cash to minority students. Some of these are actually not specific  for API students! Check to see if you apply!Hispanic Scholarship Fund:  This group offers the Gates Millennium Scholarship and the HSF General Scholarship to students of Hispanic heritage. You could win between $500 and $5,000!  Jack Kent Cooke Foundation:  If youre a high-achieving student and want to attend an elite university, but dont have the funds, then this scholarship that partn ers with the College Board may be able to help.   United Negro College Fund:  Of all of the websites you should visit, this is one of the best, even if you do not identify yourself as an African American student. I searched for scholarships for Caucasian males with households earning $80-$100 K and a mid-range GPA and still found three scholarships for which this person could apply. Check it out! Practice for the PSAT/NMSQT Its not just a test. Its a means to an ends. It can help you earn the cash you need to attend school. Be smart and dont blow this one off!

A historical and critical analysis of an entrepreneurial venture Essay

A historical and critical analysis of an entrepreneurial venture - Essay Example m, 2010). Entrepreneurship is therefore, the process of identifying business opportunities and gathering the necessary resources to start the business. Historically, in the 20th century, Joseph Schumpeter advanced one of the most used theories. He spearheaded the venturing process and gains credited for making it happen. He claimed that an entrepreneur replaces an existing economy by destroying one and making a better economy. Schumpeter’s first example of entrepreneurship was the combination of steam engines, which used coal and wagons. From this came the horseless carriages. This led to the invention of the car. We can see there was usage of already existing technology, which just got bettered. This came with a significant reduction in cost. Entrepreneurs learn from experience and with time the entrepreneurial culture grows. An example of an entrepreneurial venture is the Starbucks, a leading coffee company in Washington. It is the largest coffee house in the world, having o utlets in most significant world cities. Starbuck commenced its operations in Seattle Washington in March 30 1971. The founders were Jerry Baldwin, Zev Siegla and Gordon bowker. It used the following strategies in the venturing process to make it a success story. ... There was a need to start coffee chains in the area and they capitalized on this opportunity. Consumers are mostly the best source of information, as they are the end users. Many other entrepreneurs have been able to identify business opportunities through discussions with retailers, wholesalers, or representatives of the manufacturer. Starbucks was able to carry out thorough market research by means of questionnaires. They sought information from existing consumers and other related businesses. Starbucks invested in modern coffee brewing technologies. It also stood a decent chance against the competitors. It is worth noting that opportunities do not offer financial reward commensurate to the risks that the entrepreneur chooses to take. Starbucks also had a concrete assessment plan which they put to use. It provides a basis explaining why to adopt or not adopt the opportunity. The plan usually defines the product or the service we are interested in, and the entire requirement necessa ry to actualize it and make it a viable venture. It also outlines the financial requirements necessary. The next thing is the development of the business plan. A business plan can only be made after having identified the opportunity. It is unique for that particular business opportunity. The business plan will assist the entrepreneur gauge the resources needed in developing the business opportunity. It also helps identify resources required to achieve the same, and how and where to gather such resources. The business plan also details how to manage the venture once it has come into operation. The Starbuck business plan outlines how they planned to venture into the market and how they planned to raise funds. After coming up with the business plan, one must come up with a

2 Minute Monologue Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

2 Minute Monologue - Essay Example Ultimately, this is not a simple t The first and most obvious step when preparing something in the kitchen is to ensure that all of the correct ingredients are on hand. Secondly, it is necessary to ensure that all baking utensils, pots, pans, mixing bowls, spoons, and other measurement instruments are also washed and ready for use (Peterson, 2006). Secondly, following the instructions and/or ingredient lists that are provided within the recipe is vital. Careful attention to detail at each and every stage can yield a far better cake than can merely quickly reading over the instructions and attempting to cut steps out at any one stage as a function of saving time. Thirdly, it must also be understood that the baking process itself is something of an art form and can differ from oven into oven. For instance, if the instructions specify a particular temperature, the results might be far different than one of them then they would be in another; even if these ovens are identical and even manufactured by the same brand. In s uch a way, approximately 10 to 15 minutes prior to the specified time being over, it is necessary for the baker/cook to test the product to ensure that uniformity of texture and mass is achieved. Oftentimes, if this is noted prior to the full time elapsed, it is necessary to remove the baked product immediately. Comparatively, if this is not noticed even after the recipe time has elapsed, it will be necessary to leave the product in the oven to bake for an even longer period of time. In short, what has been defined is a labor-intensive process involves both attention to detail and constant conscientiousness in order for a superior product to be created. Ultimately, this is not a simple process; even though it may appear as somewhat simple. It is precisely these determinants, as well as the unique tools required, which helps to separate the part-time/casual baker from

Discussion Forum Chapter 6 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Discussion Forum Chapter 6 - Essay Example To begin with, there are usually frustration benches installed along the pedestrians’ footpaths and parks in most cities; they are meant to be used by every member of the public-disabled, homeless or not. Since I do not possess my own home, meaning I do not have a place to rest both day and night times, I will use this as my weapon. The first thing I can do to alter public space on these benches is to ask anyone seated on any of these benches to create space for me to sleep (lay on the bench). The benches are meant for sitting and the act of sleeping on them may attract the attention of the public especially during the day time. Additionally, I may also use the sense of being homeless to create tension and attract the attention of security personnel in restricted areas or areas that areas that requires high levels of security such as banks and the transportation sector. In this aspect, I may use the idea of homelessness to cause tension and commotion by comfortably sleeping along the pavements of the banking halls or even sitting idly on the passengers’ lounge for long hours and in some cases even sleeping on the seats. Indeed such an action may not only attract the attention of the security guards but also the attention of the

Why Software Engineering Is Important Information Technology Essay

Why Software Engineering Is Important Information Technology Essay Software Engineering is the discipline providing methods and tools for the construction of quality software with a limited budget and a given deadline, in the context of constant requirements change. It involves the elicitation of the systems requirements, the specification of the system, its architectural and detailed design .In addition, the system needs to be verified and validated, a set of activities that commonly take more than 50% of all development resources. Testing techniques and tools, at different levels (unit, integration, and system) are needed. Software development being a human intensive process, management and quality control techniques are also required to run successful projects and construct quality systems. In most systems, including telecommunication systems, software is the overriding component in terms of cost and complexity. Good software engineering practices and tools can therefore make a substantial difference, even to the extent that they may be the driving force of the project success. What is the role of SE in Telecom and System engineering? Systems engineering is an interdisciplinary field of engineering that focuses on how complex engineering projects should be designed and managed. Issues such as logistics, the coordination of different teams, and automatic control of machinery become more difficult when dealing with large, complex projects. Systems engineering deals with work-processes and tools to handle such projects, and it overlaps with both technical and human-centered disciplines such as control engineering and project management. System engineering deals with all aspects of computer-based system development. Software engineering is a part of system engineering. System engineering is to identify the roles of hardware, software, people, database and other system elements involved with that system which is going to be developed. Software engineering is to tell the practicalities of developing and delivering useful software. From its beginnings, software engineering has helped shape modern systems engineering practice. The techniques used in the handling of complexes of large software-intensive systems has had a major effect on the shaping and reshaping of the tools, methods and processes of SE. Before software can be engineered, the system in which it resides must be understood. To accomplish this, the overall objective of the system must be determined, the role of hardware, software, people, database, procedures, and other system elements must be identified, and operational requirements must be elicited, analyz ed, specified, modeled, validated, and managed. It is these activities that are the foundation of system engineering. During system design, developers define the design goals of the project and decompose the system into smaller subsystems that can be realized by individual teams. Developers also select strategies for building the system, such as the hardware/software platform on which the system will run, the persistent data management strategy, the global control flow, the access control policy, and the handling of boundary conditions. The result of system design is a clear description of each of these strategies, subsystem decomposition, and a deployment diagram representing the hardware/software mapping of the system. SECTION A: Question 5: Hypothesize a rationale for the following design decisions: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The ticket distributor will be at most one and a half meters tall. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The ticket distributor will include two redundant computer systems. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The ticket distributor will include a touch screen for displaying instructions and inputting commands. The only other control will be a cancel button for aborting a transaction. Answer: The ticket distributor will be at most one and a half meters tall. Every person can purchase the ticket including children and people with short height. The ticket distributor will include two redundant computer systems. Alternative In case if machine fails to work. Ticket distribution not to be interrupted. For data backup. To achieve a high level of availability. The ticket distributor will include a touch screen for displaying instructions and inputting commands. The only other control will be a cancel button for aborting a transaction. Enable substantial modifications to the interface. To enhance interactivity. Easier interface easily used by anyone. To let users stop their transactions any time. Question 7: Specify which of the following decisions were made during requirements or system design: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The ticket distributor is composed of a user interface subsystem, a subsystem for computing tariff, and a network subsystem managing communication with the central computer. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The ticket distributor will use PowerPC processor chips. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The ticket distributor provides the traveler with an on-line help. Answer: First and second lies in system design decision while third one is requirements design decision. Question 9: A passenger aircraft is composed of several millions of individual parts and requires thousands of persons to assemble. A four-lane highway bridge is another example of complexity. The first version of Word for Windows, a word processor released by Microsoft in November 1989, required 55 person-years, resulted into 249,000 lines of source code, and was delivered 4 years late. Aircraft and highway bridges are usually delivered on time and below budget, whereas software is often not. Discuss what are, in your opinion, the differences between developing an aircraft, a bridge, and a word processor, which would cause this situation. Answer: Requirements are non-sequential i.e. a new requirement may invalidate prior  requirement. No visible progress at end of day. Non-deterministic demands results in change of design. Many bridges and aircraft are simply refinements of other existing artifacts. This reduces the proportion of the  overall effort that is dedicated to design. Budget changes with every single change in requirement and with increased number of refinement cycles. Use of mature technologies and well defined processes in case of bridges, airplanes, etc. Innovative piece with no precedence.

Digital Divide Essay example -- Access to Technology, Gender Roles

The following comment was written by an anonymous author in response to the digital divide that is so evident in our society today. â€Å"Power is necessarily unequal when one group knows what’s going on and the other group does not. And the powerless, lacking information as they do, almost necessarily function at the bottom of the economic and political pyramid of almost any society† (Racial divide,2010). Whether it is gender, racial, economic or disability related, our nation is segregated by the haves and the have-nots. Digital Divide defined What is meant by Digital Divide? The Digital Divide is the lack of ability for certain groups, usually socio-economic and cultural, to access necessary information and communication technology (ICT) (Gorski, 2001). The lack of access usually includes the unavailability to computer and internet services. As describe by Gorski (2001), the digital divide is further subdivided by gender, race, income and disabilities. Gender With the increase of availability of access to technology in society today, women are still lagging behind their male counterparts (Conversations for a Better World, 2010). Why is this still happening in the Twenty-first Century? Globally, the root cause is the cultural treatment of women. In many cultures worldwide, women are denied access to education let alone technology. Even if they are given the opportunity to use a computer, most often they lack the computer skills to effectively navigate most websites (Digital Gender Divide, n.d.). In America and other developed countries, the digital divide that separates gender is much narrower, and often equal to that of males, depending on the survey. If a digital divide does separate the genders in developed n... .... In summary, the Digital Divide is real and has placed a severe gap between certain groups of people in the American culture. The Land of Opportunity is not necessarily made available to all. In her CNet article, Sonia Arrison (2002), provides a unique perspective as to the reason behind the gap. â€Å"The digital divide is not a crisis, and it is certainly not the civil liberties issue of the 21st century. The real issues are the sorry state of education and the push to raise the taxes that affect lower income families most† (Arrison, 2002). Arrison states that if the Government could improve the education in the American schools and stop luxury taxes on so many services, the Digital Divide could easily be narrowed. By narrowing the divide, more families could afford Internet if so desired, and students could have access to a better education.